Predicting users’ behavior: Gender and age as interactive antecedents of students’ Facebook use for research data collection

Janet Sunday Petters 1 2, Valentine Joseph Owan 2 3 * , Ovat Egbe Okpa 4, Delight Omoji Idika 2 5, Richard Ayuh Ojini 3, Blessing Agbo Ntamu 3, Augustine Igwe Robert 6, Mercy Valentine Owan 4, Stella Asu-Okang 4, Victor Eyo Essien 4
More Detail
1 Department of Guidance and Counselling, University of Calabar, Calabar, Cross River State, NIGERIA
2 Ultimate Research Network, Calabar, Cross River State, NIGERIA
3 Department of Educational Foundations, University of Calabar, Calabar, Cross River State, NIGERIA
4 Department of Educational Management, University of Calabar, Calabar, Cross River State, NIGERIA
5 Institute of Education, University of Calabar, Calabar, NIGERIA
6 Department of Social Science Education, University of Calabar, Calabar, Cross River State, NIGERIA
* Corresponding Author
Online Journal of Communication and Media Technologies, Volume 14, Issue 1, Article No: e202406. https://doi.org/10.30935/ojcmt/14104
OPEN ACCESS   1438 Views   1069 Downloads   Published online: 05 Jan 2024
Download Full Text (PDF)

ABSTRACT

Previous studies have extensively examined how teachers and students utilize Facebook for instructional engagement, writing, research dissemination, and e-learning. However, there is a lack of research focusing on Facebook as a tool for collecting research data. This study aims to fill this gap by analyzing how final-year students utilize Facebook for research data collection (RDC). The study also assesses demographic differences in students’ use of Facebook for RDC. An online survey was conducted on a sample of 11,562 final-year students from tertiary institutions in Nigeria. The researchers followed global best practices in designing and validating the online survey. The survey items demonstrated clarity and relevance, with item content validity indices ranging from .71 to .99. Dimensionality and goodness of fit were assessed through exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses. Convergent validity was evaluated using average variance extracted, while discriminant validity was assessed using the Fornel-Larcker criterion and Heterotrait-Monotrait ratio. The composite reliability indices (.97, .94, and .90) confirmed the usability of the instrument’s three sub-scales. The study’s main findings revealed a significantly low usage of Facebook for RDC among students. Age was a significant predictor, indicating that older students used Facebook more for RDC. While males reported higher usage, the gender difference was negligible. The interaction of age and gender was significant in predicting students’ use of Facebook for RDC. These results have implications for future research, which are further discussed.
Keywords: academic writing, factor analysis, higher education, research, social media

CITATION

Petters, J. S., Owan, V. J., Okpa, O. E., Idika, D. O., Ojini, R. A., Ntamu, B. A., Robert, A. I., Owan, M. V., Asu-Okang, S., & Essien, V. E. (2024). Predicting users’ behavior: Gender and age as interactive antecedents of students’ Facebook use for research data collection. Online Journal of Communication and Media Technologies, 14(1), e202406. https://doi.org/10.30935/ojcmt/14104

REFERENCES

  • Aduma, P. O., Owan, V. J., Akah, L. U., Alawa, D. A., Apie, M. A., Ogabor, J. O., Olofu, M. A., Unimna, F. A., Ebuara, V. O., Essien, E. E., & Essien, C. K. (2022). Interactive analysis of demographic variables and occupational stress on university lecturers’ job performance. Humanities and Social Sciences Letters, 10(2), 88-102. https://doi.org/10.18488/73.v10i2.2952
  • Aldahdouh, T. Z., Nokelainen, P., & Korhonen, V. (2020). Technology and social media usage in higher education: The influence of individual innovativeness. SAGE Open, 10(1), 2158244019899441. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244019899441
  • Alkhoudary, Y. A. (2018). Utilizing Facebook in EFL writing classrooms in Oman. International Journal of Computing and Digital Systems, 7(4), 225-232. https://doi.org/10.12785/ijcds/070406
  • Al-Qaysi, N., Mohamad-Nordin, N., & Al-Emran, M. (2020). An empirical investigation of students’ attitudes towards the use of social media in Omani higher education BT. In A. E. Hassanien, K. Shaalan, & M. F. Tolba (Eds.), Proceedings of the International Conference on Advanced Intelligent Systems and Informatics 2019 (pp. 350-359). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-31129-2_32
  • Al-Tamimi, M. F., Al-Khawaldeh, A. H., Natsheh, H. I. M. A., & Harazneh, A. A. (2018). The effect of using Facebook on improving English language writing skills and vocabulary enrichment among University of Jordan sophomore students. Journal of Social Sciences, 7(3), 187-214. https://doi.org/10.25255/jss.2018.7.3.187.214
  • Alwreikat, A., Zaid, M. K. A., & Shehata, A. (2021). Determinants of Facebook use among students and its impact on collaborative learning. Information Development, 2021, 02666669211005819. https://doi.org/10.1177/02666669211005819
  • Andini, M. (2019). The contribution of Facebook group in writing activity. Journal of ELT Research: The Academic Journal of Studies in English Language Teaching and Learning, 4(1), 44-51. https://doi.org/10.22236/JER_Vol4Issue1pp44-51
  • Arifani, Y., & Khaja, F. N. M. (2021). Facebook aided lesson study design: Investigating its potentials on EFL students’ literature review writing skill. International Journal of Instruction, 14(1), 47-64. https://doi.org/10.29333/iji.2021.1414a
  • Arop, F. O., Agunwa, J. N., & Owan, V. J. (2019). Tertiary students’ social media management attitudes and academic performance in Cross River State. British International Journal of Education and Social Sciences, 6(3), 48-52.
  • Aworanti, O. A. (2016). Information and communications technology (ICT) in Nigeria educational assessment system: Emerging challenges. Universal Journal of Educational Research, 4(6), 1351-1356. https://doi.org/10.13189/ujer.2016.040612
  • Barrot, J. S. (2021b). Effects of Facebook-based e-portfolio on ESL learners’ writing performance. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 34(1), 95-111. https://doi.org/10.1080/07908318.2020.1745822
  • Bashir, I., Malik, A., & Mahmood, K. (2021). Social media use and information-sharing behavior of university students. IFLA Journal, 47(4), 481-492. https://doi.org/10.1177/0340035221991564
  • Bassey, B. A., Owan, V. J., & Eze, E. A. (2019). Nexus between students’, teachers’ and school system effectiveness: Construction and factorial validity of a measuring instrument. British Journal of Education, 7(7), 62-75.
  • Bassey, B. A., Owan, V. J., Ikwen, E. U., & Amanso, E. O. (2020). Teachers’ attitudes towards learners with disability scale (TALDS): Construction and psychometric analysis. The Journal of Social Sciences Research, 6(5), 518-530. https://doi.org/10.32861/jssr.65.518.530
  • Boateng, G. O., Neilands, T. B., Frongillo, E. A., Melgar-Quiñonez, H. R., & Young, S. L. (2018). Best practices for developing and validating scales for health, social, and behavioral research: A primer. Frontiers in Public Health, 6, 149. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2018.00149
  • Boer, M., Finkenauer, C., Looze, M., & Eijnden, R. (2021). Social media use intensity, social media use problems, and mental health among adolescents: Investigating directionality and mediating processes. Computers in Human Behavior, 116, 106645. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2020.106645
  • Bollen, K. (1989). A new incremental fit index for general structural equation models. Sociological Methods and Research, 17(3), 303-316. https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124189017003004
  • Brown, T. (2015). Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research. The Guilford Press.
  • Caena, F., & Redecker, C. (2019). Aligning teacher competence frameworks to 21st-century challenges: The case for the European digital competence framework for educators (Digcompedu). European Journal of Education, 54(3), 356-369. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejed.12345
  • Carmack, C., & Rodriguez, L. (2020). Social media usage as a correlate of STI risk-related sexual behavior on the college campus: Moderating effects of gender. Current Psychology, 39(5), 1696-1704. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-018-9869-8
  • Chugh, R., Grose, R., & Macht, S. A. (2021). Social media usage by higher education academics: A scoping review of the literature. Education and Information Technologies, 26(1), 983-999. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-020-10288-z
  • Cochran, W. G. (1977). Sampling techniques. John Wiley & Sons.
  • Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
  • Cooke, S. (2015). Social teaching: Student perspectives on the inclusion of social media in higher education. Education and Information Technologies, 22, 255-269. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-015-9444-y
  • Cudo, A., Torój, M., Demczuk, M., & Francuz, P. (2019). Dysfunction of self-control in Facebook addiction: Impulsivity is the key. Psychiatric Quarterly, 91(1), 91-101. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11126-019-09683-8
  • Díez-Palomar, J., García-Carrión, R., Hargreaves, L., & Vieites, M. (2020). Transforming students’ attitudes towards learning through the use of successful educational actions. PloS ONE, 15(10), e0240292. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0240292
  • Dizon, G. (2016). A comparative study of Facebook vs paper-and-pencil writing to improve L2 writing skills. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 29(8), 1249-1258. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2016.1266369
  • Dressler, R., & Dressler, A. (2019). The methodological affordances and challenges of using Facebook to research study abroad. Study Abroad Research in Second Language Acquisition and International Education, 4(1), 126-144. https://doi.org/10.1075/sar.17017.dre
  • Dúo-Terrón, P., Moreno-Guerrero, A. J., & Marín-Marín, J. A. (2022). ICT motivation in sixth-grade students in pandemic times–The influence of gender and age. Education Sciences, 12(3), 183. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci12030183
  • Erdfelder, E., FAul, F., Buchner, A., & Lang, A. G. (2009). Statistical power analyses using G*power 3.1: Tests for correlation and regression analyses. Behavior Research Methods, 41(4), 1149-1160. https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.41.4.1149
  • Fahm, A. O., Azeez, A. L., Imam-Fulani, Y. O., Mejabi, O. V., Faruk, N., Abdulrahaman, M. D., Olawoyin, L. A., Oloyede, A. A., & Surajudeen-Bakinde, N. T. (2021). ICT enabled Almajiri education in Nigeria: Challenges and prospects. Education and Information Technologies, 27, 3135-3169. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-021-10490-7
  • Federal Ministry of Health. (2007). National code of research ethics. Ministry of Health Publications. https://portal.abuad.edu.ng/lecturer/documents/1588255709NCHRE_Aug_07.pdf
  • Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error: Algebra and statistics. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(3), 382-388. https://doi.org/10.1177/002224378101800313
  • Franz, D., Marsh, H., Chen, J., & Teo, A. (2019). Using Facebook for qualitative research: A brief primer. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 21(8), e13544. https://doi.org/10.2196/13544
  • Fresco, D. M., Moore, M. T., van Dulmen, M. H. M., Segal, Z. V, Ma, S. H., Teasdale, J. D., & Williams, J. M. G. (2007). Initial psychometric properties of the experiences questionnaire: Validation of a self-report measure of decentering. Behavior Therapy, 38(3), 234-246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2006.08.003
  • Gan, C. C. R., Feng, S., Feng, H., Fu, K., Davies, S. E., Grépin, K. A., Morgan, R., Smith, J., & Wenham, C. (2022). #wuhandiary and #wuhanlockdown: Gendered posting patterns and behaviors on Weibo during the COVID-19 pandemic. BMJ Global Health, 7(4), e008149. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2021-008149
  • Gil-Clavel, S., & Zagheni, E. (2019). Demographic differentials in Facebook usage around the world. In Proceedings of the International AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media (pp. 647-650). https://doi.org/10.1609/icwsm.v13i01.3263
  • Gordon, M. S., & Ohannessian, C. M. (2023). Social media use and early adolescents’ academic achievement: Variations by parent-adolescent communication and gender. Youth & Society. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X231180317
  • Green, J., Petty, J., Whiting, L., Orr, F., Smart, L., Brown, A.-M., & Jones, L. (2022). ‘Blurred boundaries’: When nurses and midwives give anti-vaccination advice on Facebook. Nursing Ethics, 29(3), 552-568. https://doi.org/10.1177/09697330211041749
  • Greenhow, C., & Lewin, C. (2016). Social media and education: Reconceptualizing the boundaries of formal and informal learning. Learning, Media and Technology, 41(1), 6-30. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439884.2015.1064954
  • Greenhow, C., Galvin, S., Brandon, D., & Askari, E. (2020). A decade of research on K–12 teaching and teacher learning with social media: Insights on the state of the field. Teachers College Record, 122(6), 1-72. https://doi.org/10.1177/016146812012200602
  • Gugushvili, N., Täht, K., Ruiter, R., & Verduyn, P. (2022). Facebook use intensity and depressive symptoms: A moderated mediation model of problematic Facebook use, age, neuroticism, and extraversion. BMC Psychology, 10(1), 279. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-022-00990-7
  • Guillén-Gámez, F. D., Lugones, A., & Mayorga-Fernández, M. J. (2019). ICT use by pre-service foreign languages teachers according to gender, age and motivation. Cogent Education, 6(1), 1574693. https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2019.1574693
  • Gulatee, Y., Combes, B., & Yoosabai, Y. (2021). Social media among Thai students: Narcissism, self-identity or empowerment? Higher Education Studies, 11(1), 79-93. https://doi.org/10.5539/hes.v11n1p79
  • Hassan, S., & Masoud, O. (2021). Online health information seeking and health literacy among non-medical college students: Gender differences. Journal of Public Health, 29(6), 1267-1273. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10389-020-01243-w
  • Heck, T., Peters, I., Mazarakis, A., Scherp, A., & Blümel, I. (2020). Open science practices in higher education: Discussion of survey results from research and teaching staff in Germany. Education for Information, 36(3), 301-323. https://doi.org/10.3233/EFI-190272
  • Henseler, J., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstedt, M. (2015). A new criterion for assessing discriminant validity in variance-based structural equation modeling. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 43(1), 115-135. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-014-0403-8
  • Hsu, L., Yueh, H., & Hsu, S. (2021). Subjective social capital and loneliness for the elderly: The moderator role of Line and Facebook use. Social Media + Society, 7(3), 205630512110439. https://doi.org/10.1177/20563051211043906
  • Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cut-off criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1-55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118
  • Ilakkuvan, V., Johnson, A., Villanti, A. C., Evans, W. D., & Turner, M. (2019). Patterns of social media use and their relationship to health risks among young adults. Journal of Adolescent Health, 64(2), 158-164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2018.06.025
  • Jonah, A. A. (2022). Gender factors in the utilization of Facebook in selected states in Northern Nigeria. American Journal of Arts and Educational Administration Research, 1(4), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.58314/475879
  • Juhaňák, L., Zounek, J., Záleská, K., Bárta, O., & Vlčková, K. (2019). The relationship between the age at first computer use and students’ perceived competence and autonomy in ICT usage: A mediation analysis. Computers & Education, 141, 103614. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103614
  • Kamp, K., Herbell, K., Magginis, W., Berry, D., & Given, B. (2019). Facebook recruitment and the protection of human subjects. Western Journal of Nursing Research, 41(9), 1270-1281. https://doi.org/10.1177/0193945919828108
  • Kashyap, R., Fatehkia, M., Tamime, R., & Weber, I. (2020). Monitoring global digital gender inequality using the online populations of Facebook and Google. Demographic Research, 43, 779-816. https://doi.org/10.4054/demres.2020.43.27
  • Kemp, S. (2022). Facebook stats and trends. Datareportal. https://datareportal.com/essential-facebook-stats
  • Khusnita, D. (2017). The use of Facebook to improve students’ skills and increase their motivation in writing recount text. In Proceedings of the English Language and Literature International Conference (pp. 75-81).
  • Kish, L. (1965). Survey sampling. John Wiley & Sons.
  • Kline, R. B. (2016). Principle and practice of structural equation modelling. The Guilford Press.
  • Kosinski, M., Matz, S. C., Gosling, S. D., Popov, V., & Stillwell, D. (2015). Facebook as a research tool for the social sciences: Opportunities, challenges, ethical considerations, and practical guidelines. American Psychologist, 70(6), 543-556. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0039210
  • Lakens, D. (2013). Calculating and reporting effect sizes to facilitate cumulative science: A practical primer for t-tests and ANOVAs. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 863. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863
  • Langlais, M. R., Seidman, G., & Bruxvoort, K. M. (2020). Adolescent romantic relationship–oriented Facebook behaviors: Implications for self-esteem. Youth & Society, 52(4), 661-683. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X18760647
  • Lattie, E. G., Cohen, K. A., Hersch, E., Williams, K. D., Kruzan, K. P., MacIver, C., Hermes, J., Maddi, K., Kwansny, M., & Mohr, D. C. (2022). Uptake and effectiveness of a self-guided mobile app platform for college student mental health. Internet Interventions, 27, 100493. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.invent.2021.100493
  • Maheshwari, S., & Mukherjee, T. (2020). How does academic performance increase virtual popularity? A case of Facebook usage among Indian college students. Contemporary Educational Technology, 13(1), ep284. https://doi.org/10.30935/cedtech/8709
  • Majeed, S., Ateeque, A., Rehman, M., Riaz, A., & Paul, A. (2022). The relationship between social media usage and mental well-being among young adults. PJMHS, 16(12), 128-131. https://doi.org/10.53350/pjmhs20221612128
  • Manago, A., Walsh, A., & Barsigian, L. (2023). The contributions of gender identification and gender ideologies to the purposes of social media use in adolescence. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 1011951. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1011951
  • Manca, S., & Ranieri, M. (2013). Is it a tool suitable for learning? A critical review of the literature on Facebook as a technology-enhanced learning environment. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 29(6), 487-504. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.12007
  • Manca, S., & Ranieri, M. (2016). Facebook and the others. Potentials and obstacles of social media for teaching in higher education. Computers & Education, 95, 216-230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2016.01.012
  • Mancosu, M., & Vegetti, F. (2020). What you can scrape and what is right to scrape: A proposal for a tool to collect public Facebook data. Social Media + Society, 6(3), 205630512094070. https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305120940703
  • Mason, S. (2020). Adoption and usage of academic social networks: A Japan case study. Scientometrics, 122(3), 1751-1767. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11192-020-03345-4
  • McAndrew, F. T., & Jeong, H. S. (2012). Who does what on Facebook? Age, sex, and relationship status as predictors of Facebook use. Computers in Human Behavior, 28(6), 2359-2365. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2012.07.007
  • McGregor, S. C., Lawrence, R. G., & Cardona, A. (2017). Personalization, gender, and social media: Gubernatorial candidates’ social media strategies. Information, Communication & Society, 20(2), 264-283. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2016.1167228
  • Mesagan, F. O., Eseadi, C., & Omekwu, C. O. (2022). Influence of gender and expected competencies on access to and utilization of cyberspace resources and services for research by postgraduate students. Education and Information Technologies, 27, 6157-6171. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-021-10878-5
  • Moorthy, K., T’ing, L. C., Wei, K. M., Mei, P. T. Z., Yee, C. Y., Wern, K. L. J., & Xin, Y. M. (2019). Is Facebook useful for learning? A study in private universities in Malaysia. Computers & Education, 130, 94-104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2018.12.002
  • Mundfrom, D. J., Shaw, D. G., & Ke, T. L. (2005). Minimum sample size recommendations for conducting factor analyses. International Journal of Testing, 5(2), 159-168. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327574ijt0502_4
  • Myers, N. D., Ahn, S., & Jin, Y. (2011). Sample size and power estimates for a confirmatory factor analytic model in exercise and sport: A Monte Carlo approach. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 82(3), 412-423. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2011.10599773
  • Nasser, N., Rashid, H., Hamid, S., Andrew, S., & Suppiah, S. (2019). Assessment of problematic Facebook use among undergraduate students in UPM correlated with depression, anxiety, and stress. International Journal of Public Health and Clinical Sciences, 6(4), 113. https://doi.org/10.32827/ijphcs.6.4.113
  • Nwangwa, K. C., Yonlonfoun, E., & Omotere, T. (2014). Undergraduates and their use of social media: Assessing influence on research skills. Universal Journal of Educational Research, 2(6), 446-453. https://doi.org/10.13189/ujer.2014.020602
  • Oberst, U., Renau, V., Chamarro, A., & Carbonell, X. (2016). Gender stereotypes in Facebook profiles: Are women more female online? Computers in Human Behavior, 60, 559-564. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.02.085
  • Odigwe, F. N., & Owan, V. J. (2020). Academic staff personal variables and utilization of ICT resources for research, teaching and records management in higher education. In Proceedings of the 8th Annual European Conference on Education (pp. 107-123). https://doi.org/10.22492/issn.2188-1162.2020.11
  • Oke, A., & Fernandes, F. A. P. (2020). Innovations in teaching and learning: Exploring the perceptions of the education sector on the 4th Industrial Revolution (4IR). Journal of Open Innovation: Technology, Market, and Complexity, 6(2), 31. https://doi.org/10.3390/joitmc6020031
  • Olamijuwon, E., Clifford, O., & Adjiwanou, V. (2021). Understanding how young African adults interact with peer-generated sexual health information on Facebook and uncovering strategies for successful organic engagement. BMC Public Health, 21, 2153. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-021-12165-x
  • Owan, V. J., & Asuquo, M. E. (2021). Assessment of socio-demographic factors and students’ satisfaction with the study of ICT in secondary schools. Pedagogical Research, 6(3), em0101. https://doi.org/10.29333/pr/11087
  • Owan, V. J., & Robert, I. A. (2019). Analysis of the utilization of social media platforms and university students’ attitudes towards academic activities in Cross River State, Nigeria. Prestige Journal of Education, 2(1), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4458693
  • Owan, V. J., Abang, K. B., Idika, D. O., Etta, E. O., & Bassey, B. A. (2023a). Exploring the potential of artificial intelligence tools in educational measurement and assessment. EURASIA Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 19(8), em2307. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/13428
  • Owan, V. J., Akah, L. U., Ekpo, A. J., Ubi, I. O., Abeng, F. A., & Akah, G. T. (2022a). Socioeconomic factors and the evaluation of HIV/AIDS prevention programs: A psychometric analysis of an instrument. Electronic Journal of General Medicine, 19(6), em405. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejgm/12320
  • Owan, V. J., Asuquo, M. E., Ekaette, S. O., Aslam, S., Obla, M. E., & Owan, M. V. (2021). Gender, age and staff preparedness to adopt Internet tools for research sharing during COVID-19 in African varsities. Library Philosophy and Practice, 2021, 6133. https://doi.org/10.14293/111.000/000020.v1
  • Owan, V. J., Ekpe, M. B., & Eneje, S. (2020). Undergraduates’ utilization of social networking media and sexual behaviors in higher education: A case study. Pedagogical Research, 5(2), em0062. https://doi.org/10.29333/pr/7940
  • Owan, V. J., Emanghe, E. E., Denwigwe, C. P., Etudor-Eyo, E., Usoro, A. A., Ebuara, V. O., Effiong, C., Ogar, J. O., & Bassey, B. A. (2022b). Curriculum management and graduate programs’ viability: The mediation of institutional effectiveness using PLS-SEM approach. Journal of Curriculum and Teaching, 11(5), 114-127. https://doi.org/10.5430/jct.v11n5p114
  • Owan, V. J., Obla, M. E., Asuquo, M. E., Owan, M. V., Okenjom, G. P., Undie, S. B., Ogar, J. O., & Udeh, K. V. (2023b). Students’ awareness, willingness and utilization of Facebook for research data collection: Multigroup analysis with age and gender as control variables. Journal of Pedagogical Research, 7(4), 369-399. https://doi.org/10.33902/JPR.202322235
  • Ozimek, P., & Bierhoff, H.-W. (2016). Facebook use depending on age: The influence of social comparisons. Computers in Human Behavior, 61, 271-279. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.03.034
  • Palazon, M., Sicilia, M., & Lopez, M. (2015). The influence of “Facebook friends” on the intention to join brand pages. Journal of Product & Brand Management, 24(6), 580-595. https://doi.org/10.1108/JPBM-08-2014-0696
  • Patterson, M. G., West, M. A., Shackleton, V. J., Dawson, J. F., Lawthom, R., Maitlis, S., Robinson, D. L., & Wallace, A. M. (2005). Validating the organizational climate measure: Links to managerial practices, productivity and innovation. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 26(4), 379-408. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.312
  • Putri, N., & Aminatun, D. (2021). Using Facebook to practice writing skills: What do the students think? Journal of English Language Teaching and Learning, 2(1), 45-50. https://doi.org/10.33365/jeltl.v2i1.852
  • Razak, N. A., & Saeed, M. A. (2015). EFL Arab learners’ peer revision of writing in a Facebook group: Contributions to written texts and sense of online community. English Language Teaching, 8(12), 11-26. https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v8n12p11
  • Razavi, M. R. (2021). Gender differences in the effect of virtual social network use on students’ academic performance. Current Psychology, 40(2), 744-750. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-018-9991-7
  • Razib, M., & Pinky, F. (2023). Use of social media for political communication among university students in Bangladesh. Asian Journal of Education and Social Studies, 39(3), 54-64. https://doi.org/10.9734/ajess/2023/v39i3849
  • Reagan, L., Nowlin, S. Y., Birdsall, S. B., Gabbay, J., Vorderstrasse, A., Johnson, C., & D’Eramo Melkus, G. (2019). Integrative review of recruitment of research participants through Facebook. Nursing Research, 68(6), 423-432. https://doi.org/10.1097/nnr.0000000000000385
  • Rosenzweig, L., Bergquist, P., Pham, K., Rampazzo, F., & Mildenberger, M. (2020). Survey sampling in the global south using Facebook advertisements. arXiv. https://doi.org/10.31235/osf.io/dka8f
  • Rostami, C., Hosseini, E., & Saberi, M. (2021). Information-seeking behavior in the digital age: Use by faculty members of the internet, scientific databases and social networks. Information Discovery and Delivery, 50(1), 87-98. https://doi.org/10.1108/idd-02-2020-0014
  • Schreiber, J. B., Nora, A., Stage, F. K., Barlow, E. A., & King, J. (2006). Reporting structural equation modeling and confirmatory factor analysis results: A review. The Journal of Educational Research, 99(6), 323-338. https://doi.org/10.3200/JOER.99.6.323-338
  • Schumacker, R. E., & Lomax, R. G. (2004). A beginner’s guide to structural equation modelling. Psychology Press. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781410610904
  • Sharma, S. K., Joshi, A., & Sharma, H. (2016). A multi-analytical approach to predict the Facebook usage in higher education. Computers in Human Behavior, 55, 340-353. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.09.020
  • Shehzad, M., Yousaf, M., Mahmood, N., Anon, E., & Ogadimma, C. (2021). Impact of Facebook usage on the political participation among women in Pakistan. Media Watch, 12(3), 400-421. https://doi.org/10.15655/mw/2021/v12i3/165225
  • Shodiyev, M. B. (2022). The usage of web technologies as social networks (Facebook) in teaching a foreign language to adults. Science and Education, 3(2), 973-977.
  • Siddiqui, T. (2023). Empowerment through social media usage: A comparative study of males and females. Journal of Critical Reviews, 6(2), 302-310. https://doi.org/10.48047/jcr.06.02.38
  • Sivak, E., & Smirnov, I. (2019). Parents mention sons more often than daughters on social media. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116(6), 2039-2041. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1804996116
  • Smutny, P., & Schreiberova, P. (2020). Chatbots for learning: A review of educational chatbots for the Facebook Messenger. Computers & Education, 151, 103862. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2020.103862
  • Sotero, L., Veiga, G., Carreira, D., Portugal, A., & Relvas, A. (2019). Facebook addiction and emerging adults: The influence of sociodemographic variables, family communication, and differentiation of self. Escritos de Psicología [Psychological Writings], 12(2), 81-92. https://doi.org/10.24310/espsiescpsi.v12i2.9986
  • Stănculescu, E., & Griffiths, M. D. (2021). Anxious attachment and Facebook addiction: The mediating role of need to belong, self-esteem, and Facebook use to meet romantic partners. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 21, 333-349. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-021-00598-9
  • Stieger, S. (2019). Facebook usage and life satisfaction. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 02711. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02711
  • Tafesse, W. (2020). The effect of social networking site use on college students’ academic performance: The mediating role of student engagement. Education and Information Technologies, 25(6), 4747-4763. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-020-10162-y
  • Taipe, Q. A., Heredia, M. Y., Turpo, G. O., & Igartua, J. J. (2023). Uses of Facebook and academic procrastination in general studies students at a Peruvian university. JOTSE: Journal of Technology and Science Education, 13(2), 461-479. https://doi.org/10.3926/jotse.1742
  • Tamime, R., & Weber, I. (2022). Using social media advertisement data to monitor the gender gap in STEM: Opportunities and challenges. PeerJ Computer Science, 8, e994. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj-cs.994
  • Temmesen, C., Nielsen, H., Andersen, H., Petersen, K., & Clemensen, J. (2021). Using social media for qualitative health research in Danish women of reproductive age: Online focus group study on Facebook. JMIR Formative Research, 5(5), e24108. https://doi.org/10.2196/24108
  • Throuvala, M., Griffiths, M., Rennoldson, M., & Kuss, D. (2019). Motivational processes and dysfunctional mechanisms of social media use among adolescents: A qualitative focus group study. Computers in Human Behavior, 93, 164-175. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.12.012
  • Toroujeni, S. M. H. (2021). Computerized testing in reading comprehension skill: Investigating score interchangeability, item review, age and gender stereotypes, ICT literacy and computer attitudes. Education and Information Technologies, 27, 1771-1810. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-021-10584-2
  • Torun, E. (2020). Educational use of social media in higher education: Gender and social networking sites as the predictors of consuming, creating, and sharing content. Acta Educationis Generalis [Journal of General Education], 10(2), 112-132. https://doi.org/10.2478/atd-2020-0013
  • Uakarn, C. (2021). Sample size estimation using Yamane and Cochran and Krejcie and Morgan and Green formulas and Cohen statistical power analysis by G*power and comparisons. Apheit International Journal, 10(2), 76-88.
  • von Rezori, R. E., Buchallik, F., & Warschburger, P. (2022). Validation of the German benefit finding scale for youth with chronic conditions. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 16(1), 2. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-021-00438-7
  • Watkins, M. W. (2018). Exploratory factor analysis: A guide to best practice. Journal of Black Psychology, 44(3), 219-246. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798418771807
  • Xie, W., & Karan, K. (2019). Predicting Facebook addiction and state anxiety without Facebook by gender, trait anxiety, Facebook intensity, and different Facebook activities. Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 8(1), 79-87. https://doi.org/10.1556/2006.8.2019.09
  • Yen, Y. C., Hou, H. T., & Chang, K. E. (2015). Applying role-playing strategy to enhance learners’ writing and speaking skills in EFL courses using Facebook and Skype as learning tools: A case study in Taiwan. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 28(5), 383-406. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2013.839568
  • Zagidullin, M., Aziz, N., & Kozhakhmet, S. (2021). Government policies and attitudes to social media use among users in Turkey: The role of awareness of policies, political involvement, online trust, and party identification. Technology in Society, 67, 101708. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2021.101708
  • Zhang, L., & Jung, E. (2022). The more engaging, the more enjoyable? Age matters in predicting perceived enjoyment with different Facebook activities. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 994337. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.994337
  • Zimmer, M. (2020). “But the data is already public”: On the ethics of research in Facebook. In K. W. Miller, & M. Taddeo (Eds.), The ethics of information technologies (pp. 13-27). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003075011-17